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In this sixth and final installment, the book Hitler’s Aristocrats: The Secret Power Players in Britain and America Who Supported the Nazis, 1923–1941 by Susan Ronald prompts a discussion about those mentioned with contextual ties to Philip Johnson (1906-2005) of New Canaan, the architect of the famous Glass House in New Canaan with a Nazi past. The book also acts as a structural frame to reconsider the ground zero of 1930s U. S. Modernism and its society and business ties.
As previewed in the book promo, “Hitler’s Aristocrats uncovers the battle between these influencers and those who heroically opposed them.” (See the list of key players.)
For economy and like social media icons, those person shortlisted and put forth at the beginning of the book and mentioned below are indicated with two swastikas (卐 卐). Additional figures and companies mentioned in the book supporting Nazism receive one (卐).
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For decades, I certainly bought into the PR-shaped history that the Museum of Modern Art in New York was a fierce and stylish bastion against Nazism, championing the Weimar-era 1919-28 Bauhaus and all. It would seem impossible to ever argue that the museum, founded in 1929, wasn’t dominantly presenting that.
But a string of seemingly disconnected, pro-Nazi elements can be seen from 1932-43— including Philip Johnson and some on the board of trustees — when referring to critical business history, as shown in Antony Sutton’s Wall Street and the rise of Hitler (1976). Here we see that Rockefeller’s Standard Oil (卐) was in an I. G. Farben (卐) tie-up. Philip and his father Homer were in an ALCOA I. G. Farben (卐) tie-up. Even Warburgs in Germany and New York were in an American I. G. Farben (卐) tie-up. And then there was Henry Ford’s son Edsel, CEO of the Ford Motor Company (卐).
I suppose MoMA has been so fabulous over the years that there’s no other choice but to forgive any failings. However, it would seem that greater transparency about any "NaziMoMA" strands in its history should be acknowledged, as opposed to simply offering a selective account and a stylish pose. Ring-fencing the Nazism of Philip Johnson after everyone already learned about his fascination with the Führer isn't enough.
In this way, public trust could increase, versus flashing a middle MoMA finger at the public.
Here’s a dash survey of NaziMoMA elements:
1932 Modern Architecture exhibition
Already put forth in part 3, a Nazi stain soaked the celebrated 1932 show with the inclusion of a later Nazi war criminal, I. G. Farben’s Georg von Schnitzler (卐) (卐), which for decades no one in the esteemed Modern architecture history field nor MoMA told us about. Writer David J. Black also identified two more persons of concern, and this demands further research:
“Patrons of and contributors to the exhibition included Jacobo Fitz-James Stuart y Falco, 17th Duke of Alva (or Alba), 10th Duke of Berwick and pretender to the throne of Scotland, who would later become General Franco’s representative in Britain, and a supplier of useful intelligence to the Third Reich, via Madrid…
Others included Baroness Helena von Nostitz-Hindenburg who, the following year, would be one of nine influential German women to sign the Oath of Allegiance to Adolf Hitler...”
This was in addition to the already identified Rockefeller / Standard Oil (卐) tie-up, and Philip and his father’s ALCOA interests and that business’s tie-up, to I. G. Farben (卐).
This show traveled across the US to a number of museums including Hartford, CT, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Cleveland until at least the end of 1933. So embedded pro-Nazi messaging continued to other 1930s industrial cities, and their elites, and was optimally timed.
By the end of 1933 when Hitler took power, Philip Johnson had already visited Germany again that year. Later back in the US, Johnson advocated the following in Hound and Horn: the architecture of the Third Reich should be Modernism of the Mies van der Rohe strand. This sort of unsettles the notion of Modernism being exclusively anti-Nazi, promoted after WWII, and demands a rethink.
1934 objects show exhibition
It should be noted that Johnson worked on organizing a number of shows, and it certainly wasn’t like everything was about Nazi, at least on the surface. Two years later, in March-April 1934, over 400 objects were put on display with a Modern approach. This exhibition, Machine Art, continues to be an iconic show in the field of product / industrial design history.
Some businesses that contributed designs were indeed in Nazi-era business tie-ups, such as Standard Oil (卐), ALCOA, Ford Motor Company (卐), and likely more. It has yet to be investigated.
The uncomfortable truth regarding the iconic show is that Johnson was perfectly placed, if then an active Nazi agent, sort of a more stylish Charles Bedaux (卐 卐) (see part 2). As shown above in Johnson's declassified FBI report, his secretary until 1934 alleged that Johnson aspired to become the American Hitler (卐 卐). That would involve marshalling the power of crowds, which Johnson showed us in his political work in Ohio in 1935-37. Here with the Machine Art show and after 1938, Johnson’s target group was more refined and niche.
Johnson’s secretary told the FBI that about 300 names were in Johnson’s new Grey Shirts organization. That list of names has yet to come forward, but might be in declassified US-UK-German intelligence files that require archival digging. So where did the 300 alleged contacts maybe come from? It’s among possibilities that some of the 300 are indirectly shown to us in the Machine Art show's manufacturer’s product list of exhibitors. Clearly months of time were spent in the contact building stage of this exhibition.
What’s also of note is that the show is very interesting in terms of design objects and product ranges. So why didn’t this exhibition, presumably not travel, as others had? Well, who knows at this juncture, but 1934 was a very interesting year in America and also Germany in the wider sphere of Philip Johnson.
1934 Congressional investigation and Night of the Long Knives
The folklore is that MoMA was pleased to see Philip Johnson leave by December 1934, presumably for his pro-Nazi and fascist views. You can imagine any pearl-clutching at the time, and any recast recollections after the Nazi cause lost. Archival letters can potentially be backdated when historical reputations and egos are at stake. Sometimes an independent scientific and historical analysis is needed. So, always think critically.
Additionally, three things stand out leading up to December 1934. First, Johnson later said that he supported Huey Long, left strongman Governor of Louisiana and his fight to tax Standard Oil’s operations in the state, which had a sizable number of people living in crushing poverty. So, from Johnson, there was a later backhand and a pose against the Rockefellers as one might expect.
Second, in 1934, the Rockefellers’ PR guru, Ivy Lee (卐), also represented the American subsidiary of I. G. Farben (卐). Lee was called out in congressional testimony for meeting Hitler (卐 卐) , while Nazi propaganda was funneled through American I. G. Farben (卐) into the US. This was reported nationally the month after the Machine Art exhibition closed. Presumably there was advance warning of a critical inquiry weeks before.
Lastly, there was no stated reason for Johnson not to go to Germany after his dedicated enthusiasm up to 1933. Johnson didn’t go from 1934-37, according to a review of his international travel data.
My working hypothesis is that Johnson was avoiding Germany due to some sort of threat in the US, like a federal investigation then of his pro-Nazi activity. This could demand a change of course.
Alternatively, perhaps it had something to do with the SA and the Night of the Long Knives, June 30 - July 2, 1934. It was rumored that its openly gay militant SA leader, Ernst Röhm (卐), with some number of militant homosexual followers, were planning to overthrow Hitler (卐 卐). So, Hitler & Co. initiated a brutal, murderous crackdown.
With Johnson’s thirst for militancy, Nazi uniforms, and younger blond-haired men, avoiding Germany under this situation could make sense. Röhm and Johnson may have frequented the same gay bars in Berlin, and Johnson could have known him and to some extent.
Even a committed gay Nazi like Philip may have to turn down a long-stay vacation in Germany to not end up in the purge and bloodbath, even with the fond memories of his later self-described "Isherwood period", as recent as 1932.
Herbert Scholz, featured in part 3, also in the SA, was thought to have been in hiding for a time after the Night of the Long Knives. He then re-emerged as he got the “all clear” from his father-in-law, Georg von Schnitzler, via his contacts. As noted earlier, Von Schnitzler (卐) was listed as a patron in the 1932 Modern Architecture show and became a later convicted I. G. Farben (卐) Nazi war criminal.
Maybe Johnson’s pal, Viola Bodenschatz, the sister-in-law of Goering’s longtime friend, got the “all clear” for Johnson, and then he was all ready to go back to Germany in 1938.
Nazis in the African negro art show
Another curious exhibition organized by the Museum of Modern Art was African negro art in March-May 1935. In addition to concerns about the content and depictions in relation to Modern art (think Picasso), what’s remarkable is the level of German and Nazi interaction.
On page 8, we see acknowledgements of assistance prior to the implementation of Nazi-era Nuremberg Laws:
> Thomas B. Appleget, Rockefeller Foundation, New York;
> Dr. Hans Borchers, German consul to New York and before 1933 to Cleveland (卐);
> U. S. Ambassador to Germany, William Dodd (anti-Nazi), Martha’s father (see part 5);
> Dr. H. Jaeger, German consul to Chicago;
> Dr. Richard Kempe, Attaché of Hans Borchers;
> Tracy B. Kittredge, Rockefeller Foundation, Paris;
> Dr. Hans Luther, German ambassador to the US (卐);
> Dr. W Mosle, Carl Schurz Vereinigung, Berlin;
> Mrs. Helen Appleton Read (see part 5);
> Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr.;
> Dr. Wilbur K. Thomas, Carl Schurz Memorial Foundation, Philadelphia; and
> Mr. Edward M. M. Warburg, New York. (See American I. G. Farben executive board, p. 47 and more)
So in this shortlist of people alone, we see three Rockefeller representatives and a Warburg in the sphere of US Nazi-era business tie-ups. Among the top America-based Nazi spy chiefs, Borchers (卐) was involved with his attaché, as well as two other consuls and the ambassador.
Persons from the Vereinigung Carl Schurz organization in Berlin and its American counterpart were listed; the connection between the two was severed in 1940, according to former federal prosecutor O. John Rogge, because the former was using the latter to push Nazi propaganda.
Then we have Ambassador Dodd to Germany (1933-37) whose detailed diary was referred to during the post-WWII Nuremberg Trials. He died in 1940. (See part 5 for link to film depiction of him.)
This exhibition was noted in a press release to later have been slated to travel to seven other arts venues, including the art museums in Cleveland and Hartford of course, and San Francisco, until April 1936.
Nazi sidestep with mention of anti-Nazi St. Alfred Barr
Picking up the embedded Nazi propaganda when the touring African negro art exhibition was winding down, this Nazi history documentation-treasure of a show German art from the fifteenth to the Twentieth Century was probably Aryanized, and would seem more in the stereotypical anti-Modern Hitler (卐 卐) strain.
It was organized by none other than Helen Appleton Read, Wellesley grad, and 1932 Hitler Youth rally pal of Philip Johnson. The exhibition travelled from museums in Philadelphia, to Chicago, Boston, Brooklyn, and then of course Hartford, CT and Cleveland.
Philip’s older sister was reported to be among the hostesses at a private view of the German art exhibition in Cleveland. It was also reported that Philip’s mother’s Wellesley Club discussed the exhibition in their group.
The Oberlaender Trust and the Carl Schurz Memorial Foundation organized the exhibition. Usually considered a Modern art saint, Alfred Barr, Director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, was one of four advisors on the Advisory Committee on Art. (See linked catalogue, page at end.)
Grateful acknowledge was given to presumably Berlin-based Dr. Kurt Biebrach, Counselor for Art in the Ministry of Propaganda [think Goebbels (卐 卐)] and Dr. von Oppen, Counselor for Art in the Ministry of Culture. Those thanked for loaning works or aiding the exhibition include:
> U. S. Ambassador to Germany William E. Dodd (1933-37) (anti-Nazi). (See part 5 for link to film depiction of him);
> German Ambassador to the US Hans Luther (卐);
> Viola Bodenschatz (see part 4);
> Ernst “Putzi” Hanfstaengl (卐), (see part 5);
> Putzi’s older brother Edgar;
> Erna Hanfstaengl, older sister of Putzi (卐 卐), roommate of Unity Mitford (卐 卐) in Munich, always rumored to have early on been involved intimately with Hitler (卐 卐). She was also rumored to be involved in a plot to later overthrow him. Unity’s sister, Diana (卐 卐), married British fascist Oswald Mosley (卐 卐); a darling in the American expat pro-Nazi set including Wallis Simpson (卐 卐) and Chips Channon (卐 卐);
> Lilly von Schnitzler (卐) (see part 3);
> German consul to New York, Hans Borchers (卐);
> Dr. W Moslé, presumably from the Carl Schurz Vereinigung, Berlin is listed as a lender;
At this juncture, Read’s positions are unclear. Note that Read is not listed as a later OSS / pre-CIA agent as occasionally some playing footsie with Nazis and Hitler’s Aristocrats are.
This is only a set of the people involved that I have identified. As we see, a lot of Nazi objectives criss-cross this selection already, with links stretching into British fascism, Berlin, and both sides of the Nuremberg Trials. We also see that a seemingly innocent, travelling historical art exhibition is wrapped in Nazi propaganda and contact building.
Ford and MoMA, 1935 - 1943
Apart from the self-congratulatory philanthropic class and their dutiful recipient-minions, there’s nothing to celebrate with Edsel Ford, CEO of the Ford Motor Company (卐), being on the MoMA board during the Nazi years.
Edsel was first listed on the board of trustees in an exhibition catalogue published for the African negro art show in March 1935. Ford was a MoMA trustee until his death in 1943.
With Edsel joining the board of trustees by March 1935, we then see four figures in the sphere of Nazi-era business tie-ups. (Also see part 3.) We can imagine not one word of concern at MoMA board meetings.
The Ford Motor Company history was certainly tainted as recently as the late 1990s with allegations of slave labor at the Ford-connected site in Germany, Ford-Werke. A report was issued in 2001 noting that U. S. Ford lost communication and decision-making control of its German counterpart after WWII broke out, so effectively cleared of that responsibility.
In a video from May 1939, we see Edsel walking with other trustees at the opening of the new Museum of Modern Art. He passes the iconic Girl before a mirror by Pablo Picasso (1932), a popular painting and one of my lifelong favorites. President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave a radio address for the new museum opening.
No one could have predicted what would come in the European War, which began months later in September 1939. Eight-six years later, one result is that we’re left with chilling film footage of bodies and those barely alive emaciated in concentration camps. We can see clips inserted into the Nuremberg (2000) film, and reactions (direct link to the film scene).
After the war, Philip Johnson rejoined MoMA as a curator. In 1957, he became a trustee, after some reputed board pushback concerning his Nazi past. We're told that Blanchette Rockefeller replied to the concern: “Every young man should be allowed one large mistake”.
To which I’d reply, “Oh really, Ms. Rockefeller. Given those around you then, how could you... say... no?”
(Hat tip to V. Mitch McEwen of the Johnson Study Group and in the Princeton University architecture department for alerting me to the “African negro art” exhibition at MoMA, mentioned above. Get ready: she has a book coming out this fall, in which she interprets Johnson's famed Glass House in relation to… Auschwitz.)
> Ronald, Susan. (2023). Hitler’s Aristocrats. St. Martin’s Press. 464 pp.
Six installments, Hitler's Artistocrats et al.: part 1 | 2a | 2b | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | + Assassination Plot | + Martha & Hitler | + Thomas W. Lamont
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